Historia ya Kanisa — Sehemu ya 7: Matengenezo ya KanisaChurch History — Unit 7: The Reformation

Tarehe 31 Oktoba 1517, mtawa mmoja Mjerumani asiyejulikana sana aitwaye Martin Luther alisambaza hoja tisini na tano za kitaaluma ili zijadiliwe, jambo ambalo kwa mapokeo linahusishwa na kuzibandika kwenye mlango wa Kanisa la Ngome huko Wittenberg. Alikuwa akialika mjadala wa kitaaluma kuhusu indulgensia. Hakuwa akijaribu kuanzisha Matengenezo ya Kanisa. Ndani ya miaka mitatu hoja zake zilikuwa zimechapishwa kote Ulaya. Ndani ya miaka minne alikuwa ametengwa na kanisa na papa na kutangazwa mhalifu na mfalme. Ndani ya miaka kumi sehemu kubwa ya Ujerumani, iliyokuwa ikiendelea kukua, ilikuwa imejitenga na Roma.On October 31, 1517, an obscure German monk named Martin Luther circulated ninety-five academic propositions for debate, traditionally associated with posting them on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg. He was inviting a scholarly debate on indulgences. He was not trying to start a Reformation. Within three years his theses had been printed across Europe. Within four years he had been excommunicated by the pope and outlawed by the emperor. Within a decade a substantial and growing part of Germany had broken with Rome.

Karne ya kumi na sita ni ya tatu kati ya karne nne kuu za uhubiri wa Kikristo. Sehemu ya 6 ilimalizika huku kila hali iliyohitajika kwa karne hiyo ikiwa tayari imewekwa: upapa uliokuwa umepoteza heshima, msamiati wa watangulizi ukisubiri, Agano Jipya la Kigiriki la Erasmus likiwa limechapishwa karibuni, mtambo wa uchapishaji wa Gutenberg ukiwa tayari kuzidisha vitabu, na Ulaya yenye walei wenye njaa ya Maandiko katika lugha yao wenyewe. Karne ya kumi na sita iliongeza ujasiri wa kikundi kidogo cha watu waliobeba kazi ya watangulizi kupitia dhoruba. Luther huko Ujerumani. Zwingli na Bullinger huko Zurich. Calvin huko Geneva. Knox huko Uskoti. Tyndale, Cranmer, na Latimer huko Uingereza. Wahubiri wa Kianabaptisti katika miji ya Uswisi na katika Nchi za Chini. Kufikia mwaka 1600 ramani ya kidini ya Ulaya ilikuwa imechorwa upya kwa kudumu.The sixteenth century is the third of the four great centuries of Christian preaching. Unit 6 ended with every condition for that century already in place: a discredited papacy, the forerunners' vocabulary lying in wait, Erasmus's Greek New Testament freshly printed, Gutenberg's press ready to multiply books, and a Europe of laypeople hungry for Scripture in their own language. The sixteenth century added the courage of a small handful of men who carried the forerunners' work through the storm. Luther in Germany. Zwingli and Bullinger in Zurich. Calvin in Geneva. Knox in Scotland. Tyndale, Cranmer, and Latimer in England. The Anabaptist preachers in the Swiss towns and the Low Countries. By 1600 the religious map of Europe had been redrawn permanently.

Alama saba kuu zinaiunda sehemu hii. Uzoefu wa Luther katika mnara na Hoja Tisini na Tano. Mkutano wa Kifalme wa Worms na maneno "Hapa nasimama." Zwingli, Marburg, na tawi la Kireformed. Waanabaptisti, tawi la msimamo mkali la Matengenezo ya Kanisa, ambao jumuiya zao nyingi ziliteswa vikali na mamlaka za Kikatoliki na za Kiprotestanti pia. Calvin na Geneva. Matengenezo ya Kanisa huko Uingereza kuanzia Tyndale hadi Knox. Matengenezo ya Kikatoliki ya Kujibu (Counter-Reformation) na Mtaguso wa Trento. Na chini ya hayo yote, kurejeshwa kwa injili ya neema na kurejeshwa kwa uhubiri wa kibiblia.Seven landmarks frame the unit. Luther's tower experience and the Ninety-Five Theses. The Diet of Worms and "Here I stand." Zwingli, Marburg, and the Reformed wing. The Anabaptists, the radical wing of the Reformation, many of whose communities suffered severe persecution from both Catholic and Protestant authorities. Calvin and Geneva. The English Reformation from Tyndale to Knox. The Counter-Reformation and the Council of Trent. And underneath all of it, the recovery of the gospel of grace and the recovery of biblical preaching.

Martin Luther alizaliwa mwaka 1483 huko Eisleben. Baba yake alitaka awe mwanasheria. Mnamo Julai 1505 radi ilikaribia kumuua akiwa njiani kuelekea Erfurt. Akiwa ameogopa sana, alilia, "Mtakatifu Anna, nisaidie! Nitakuwa mtawa!" Wiki mbili baadaye aliingia katika monasteri ya Waagustino huko Erfurt, licha ya pingamizi kali la baba yake aliyekasirika.Martin Luther was born in 1483 in Eisleben. His father wanted him to be a lawyer. In July 1505 a lightning bolt nearly killed him on the road to Erfurt. Terrified, he cried, "Saint Anne, help me! I will become a monk!" Two weeks later he entered the Augustinian monastery at Erfurt against his father's furious protests.

Luther alikuwa mtawa wa kuigwa na pia mtawa aliyeteseka moyoni. Alifunga hadi karibu kufa kwa njaa, alikesha mikesha iliyoharibu afya yake, na aliungama dhambi kwa uangalifu mwingi kiasi kwamba mwungamishi wake alimwambia arudi atakapokuwa ametenda dhambi halisi. Mfumo wa zama za kati uliwaahidi amani wale walioungama dhambi zao zote na kufanya malipizi ya kutosha. Luther hakuweza kukamilisha hatua yoyote kati ya hizo mbili. "Sikumpenda Mungu," aliandika baadaye. "Nilimchukia."Luther was a model monk and a tortured one. He fasted to the edge of starvation, kept vigils that broke his health, confessed sins so meticulously that his confessor told him to come back when he had committed a real sin. The medieval system promised peace to those who confessed all their sins and did sufficient penance. Luther could finish neither step. "I did not love God," he later wrote. "I hated Him."

Johann von Staupitz alimtuma Wittenberg kufundisha Biblia. Alipokuwa akifundisha Zaburi, Warumi, na Wagalatia kuanzia mwaka 1513 hadi 1517, Luther alianza kusoma kwa usikivu mpya. Maneno yaliyomfungua moyo yalikuwa Warumi 1:17: "haki ya Mungu inadhihirishwa ndani yake, toka imani hata imani… Mwenye haki ataishi kwa imani." Alikuwa ameyasoma maneno "haki ya Mungu" kama kipimo kilichomhukumu. Kisha, takriban mwaka 1515, katika chumba chake cha kujifunzia ndani ya mnara wa Monasteri Nyeusi, maana yake ilibadilika. Haki ya Mungu si kipimo ambacho Mungu hukitumia dhidi yetu. Ni zawadi ambayo Mungu huwapa wale wanaomtumaini Mwanawe. Haki ya Mungu ni haki itokayo kwa Mungu, inayohesabiwa bure kwa mwenye dhambi anayeamini. Maneno ya Luther mwenyewe: "Nilihisi kwamba nimezaliwa upya kabisa na kwamba nimeingia peponi kwenyewe kupitia malango yaliyo wazi. Hapo uso mwingine kabisa wa Maandiko yote ulijidhihirisha kwangu." Kuhesabiwa haki kwa imani peke yake kulikuwa uzoefu binafsi kwa Luther kabla hakujawa teolojia.Johann von Staupitz sent him to Wittenberg to teach Bible. Lecturing through the Psalms, Romans, and Galatians from 1513–1517, Luther began to read with new attention. The phrase that broke him open was Romans 1:17: "the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith… the just shall live by faith." He had read "the righteousness of God" as the standard that condemned him. Then, around 1515 in his study in the tower of the Black Cloister, the meaning shifted. The righteousness of God is not the standard God uses against us. It is the gift God gives to those who trust His Son. The righteousness of God is the righteousness from God, freely credited to the sinner who believes. Luther's own words: "I felt that I was altogether born again and had entered paradise itself through open gates. There a totally other face of the entire Scripture showed itself to me." Justification by faith alone was personal experience for Luther before it was theology.

Kichocheo kilichoufanya ugunduzi wake wa faragha kuwa wa hadhara kilikuwa mtawa mhubiri wa shirika la Wadominiko aitwaye Johann Tetzel, aliyekuwa akiuza indulgensia katika eneo jirani ili kugharimia ujenzi wa Kanisa la Mtakatifu Petro huko Roma. Kauli ya Tetzel ya kushawishi wanunuzi ilikuwa: "Mara sarafu inapolia ndani ya sanduku, roho inaruka kutoka toharani." Waumini wa parokia ya Luther walikuwa wakinunua. Tarehe 31 Oktoba 1517, mkesha wa Siku ya Watakatifu Wote, Luther alisambaza Hoja zake Tisini na Tano, jambo ambalo kwa mapokeo linahusishwa na kuzibandika kwenye mlango wa Kanisa la Ngome. Zilikuwa hoja tisini na tano kwa Kilatini zilizodai kwamba indulgensia haziwezi kusamehe dhambi na kwamba toba ya kweli ni kugeuka kwa moyo katika maisha yote. Hoja ya 1: "Bwana na Mwalimu wetu Yesu Kristo aliposema, 'Tubuni,' alikusudia kwamba maisha yote ya waumini yawe maisha ya toba." Wachapishaji walizipata. Kufikia majira ya kuchipua ya mwaka 1518 zilikuwa zimeenea kwa Kijerumani kote Ulaya. Papa alimwita Luther ayakane mafundisho yake. Luther alikataa. Mnamo Juni 1520 Papa Leo X alitoa hati rasmi (bula) Exsurge Domine akidai afute makosa arobaini na moja. Tarehe 10 Desemba 1520, Luther aliichoma hati hiyo hadharani huko Wittenberg. Hapakuwa na kurudi nyuma tena.The trigger that turned his private discovery public was a Dominican friar named Johann Tetzel selling indulgences in the next territory to fund Saint Peter's in Rome. Tetzel's pitch: "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs." Luther's parishioners were buying. On October 31, 1517, the eve of All Saints', Luther circulated his Ninety-Five Theses, traditionally associated with posting them on the Castle Church door. They were ninety-five Latin propositions arguing that indulgences could not forgive sin and that true repentance was a lifelong turning of the heart. Thesis 1: "When our Lord and Master Jesus Christ said, 'Repent,' He willed that the entire life of believers be one of repentance." The printers got hold of them. By spring 1518 they were in German across Europe. The pope summoned Luther to recant. Luther refused. In June 1520 Pope Leo X issued the bull Exsurge Domine demanding retraction of forty-one errors. On December 10, 1520, Luther burned the bull publicly at Wittenberg. There was no going back.

Mnamo Aprili 1521 Mfalme wa Dola Takatifu la Kirumi, Charles V, aliyekuwa na umri wa miaka ishirini tu na Mkatoliki mcha Mungu, alimwita Luther kwenye Mkutano wa Kifalme (Diet) huko Worms chini ya hati ya kifalme ya usalama wa safari — dhamana ya aina ileile aliyopewa Hus miaka mia moja na sita kabla, ambayo haikumwokoa Hus. Rafiki za Luther walimsihi asiende. Inasemekana Luther alisema angekwenda Worms "hata kama huko kungekuwa na mashetani wengi kama vigae vilivyo juu ya mapaa."In April 1521 the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, only twenty years old and a devout Catholic, summoned Luther to the imperial Diet at Worms under imperial safe-conduct — the same kind of guarantee Hus had been given a hundred and six years earlier and that had not saved Hus. Luther's friends begged him not to go. Luther reportedly said he would go to Worms "if there were as many devils there as tiles on the rooftops."

Tarehe 17 Aprili Luther alisimama mbele ya mfalme huku vitabu vyake vikiwa juu ya meza. Aliulizwa: je, hivi ni vitabu vyake, na je, atayakana yaliyomo? Alikiri kwamba ni vitabu vyake na akaomba apewe siku moja ya kutafakari. Tarehe 18 Aprili alirudi. Alizungumza kwanza kwa Kilatini, kisha kwa Kijerumani, akiomba athibitishiwe kutoka katika Maandiko au kwa akili iliyo wazi mahali alipokosea. "Nisiposadikishwa kwa ushuhuda wa Maandiko au kwa akili iliyo wazi — kwa maana siwaamini papa wala mitaguso peke yao, kwa kuwa inajulikana wazi kwamba mara nyingi wamekosea na kujipinga wenyewe — nimefungwa na Maandiko niliyoyanukuu, na dhamiri yangu imetekwa na Neno la Mungu. Siwezi na sitakana chochote, kwa kuwa kutenda kinyume cha dhamiri si salama wala si haki." Kisha, kulingana na mapokeo ya mapema kabisa: "Hapa nasimama. Siwezi kufanya vinginevyo. Mungu nisaidie. Amina."On April 17 Luther stood before the emperor with his books on a table. He was asked: were these his books, and would he retract? He acknowledged the books and asked a day to consider. On April 18 he returned. He spoke first in Latin, then in German, asking for proof from Scripture or clear reason where he was wrong. "Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason — for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves — I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted, and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, since to act against conscience is neither safe nor right." Then, according to the earliest tradition: "Here I stand. I can do no other. God help me. Amen."

Charles alimtangaza Luther kuwa mhalifu aliye nje ya ulinzi wa sheria kwa Amri ya Worms. Frederiki Mwenye Hekima wa Saksonia, mtawala wa Luther, alipanga utekaji wa kujifanya msituni Luther akiwa njiani kurudi nyumbani; Luther alipelekwa kwenye Ngome ya Wartburg na kufichwa humo kwa miezi kumi kwa jina "Junker Jörg" (Bwana Shujaa George). Katika miezi hiyo kumi Luther alitafsiri Agano Jipya kutoka Kigiriki cha Erasmus kwenda Kijerumani. Matokeo yake, Agano la Septemba la mwaka 1522, yangefanya kwa Kijerumani kile ambacho Agano Jipya la Tyndale, miaka minne baadaye, lilifanya kwa Kiingereza: kulipa taifa zima Maandiko katika lugha yake ya mama. Matengenezo ya Kanisa, yaliyoanza kama mabishano ya kitaaluma kuhusu indulgensia, sasa yalikuwa vuguvugu lisiloweza kuzuiliwa la kuweka Biblia mikononi mwa waumini wa kawaida.Charles declared Luther an outlaw under the Edict of Worms. Frederick the Wise of Saxony, Luther's prince, arranged a fake kidnapping in the forest on the way home; Luther was taken to Wartburg Castle and hidden for ten months under the name "Junker Jörg" (Knight George). During those ten months Luther translated the New Testament from Erasmus's Greek into German. The result, the September Testament of 1522, would do for German what Tyndale's New Testament four years later did for English: give an entire nation Scripture in its mother tongue. The Reformation, which began as an academic dispute over indulgences, was now an unstoppable movement to put the Bible in the hands of ordinary believers.

Wakati Luther alipokuwa akihubiri huko Wittenberg, matengenezo mengine yaliyokwenda sambamba yalizuka huko Uswisi chini ya Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531). Akiwa padri wa Kikatoliki huko Zurich aliyeathiriwa sana na Erasmus, Zwingli alianza mwaka 1519 kuhubiri kwa utaratibu kupitia Injili ya Mathayo, mstari kwa mstari, kama Krisostomo alivyohubiri katika karne ya nne. Baraza la mji wa Zurich lilipiga kura mwaka 1523 kwamba mahubiri yote yangetoka katika Maandiko peke yake. Misa ilifutwa huko Zurich mwaka 1525 na mahali pake pakawekwa Meza ya Bwana rahisi.While Luther preached in Wittenberg, a parallel reformation broke out in Switzerland under Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531). A Catholic priest in Zurich deeply influenced by Erasmus, Zwingli began in 1519 to preach systematically through the Gospel of Matthew, verse by verse, the way Chrysostom had preached in the fourth century. The Zurich council voted in 1523 that all preaching would be from Scripture only. The Mass was abolished in Zurich in 1525 and replaced with a simple Lord's Supper.

Matengenezo ya Zwingli yalitofautiana na ya Luther. Pale ambapo Luther alibakiza kile ambacho Maandiko hayakukataza, Zwingli aliondoa kile ambacho Maandiko hayakuamuru. Pale ambapo Luther alibakiza sanamu na misalaba yenye sura ya Kristo, Zwingli aliviondoa. Jambo zito kuliko yote ni kwamba wawili hao hawakukubaliana kuhusu Meza ya Bwana. Luther alishikilia kwamba mwili na damu ya Kristo vipo kweli "ndani, pamoja na, na chini ya" mkate na divai. Zwingli aliiona Meza ya Bwana kuwa ukumbusho — ishara zinazokumbusha kifo cha Kristo, Kristo akiwepo kiroho lakini si kimwili.Zwingli's reformation differed from Luther's. Where Luther kept what Scripture did not forbid, Zwingli removed what Scripture did not command. Where Luther kept images and crucifixes, Zwingli stripped them. Most critically, the two disagreed about the Lord's Supper. Luther held Christ's body and blood truly present "in, with, and under" the bread and wine. Zwingli held the Supper a memorial — signs that recall Christ's death, with Christ present spiritually but not bodily.

Mwaka 1529 Filipo wa Hesse aliwaita Luther na Zwingli huko Marburg, akitumaini kuyaunganisha Matengenezo hayo mawili. Walikubaliana juu ya vifungu kumi na vinne kati ya kumi na tano. Hawakuweza kukubaliana juu ya Meza ya Bwana. Luther alichukua chaki, akaandika juu ya meza "Hoc est corpus meum" — "Huu ndio mwili wangu" — akayafunika maneno hayo kwa kitambaa, na hakukubali kulegeza msimamo kuhusu kile alichoamini maneno ya Kristo yalisema waziwazi. Zwingli alilia. Wawili hao waliachana. Miaka miwili baadaye Zwingli aliuawa vitani huko Kappel akiitetea Zurich dhidi ya majimbo ya Kikatoliki. Alikuwa na umri wa miaka arobaini na saba. Heinrich Bullinger, mrithi wake kijana mwenye uwezo, aliiongoza Zurich kwa miaka mingine arobaini na minne na kuifanya kuwa mojawapo ya miji muhimu zaidi ya Kireformed barani Ulaya. Kushindwa kwa Marburg kulizaa mapokeo mawili tofauti — la Kilutheri na la Kireformed — ambayo yamebaki tofauti tangu wakati huo. Tawi la Kireformed ndilo tutakalolifuata hadi Geneva ya Calvin.In 1529 Philip of Hesse summoned Luther and Zwingli to Marburg, hoping to unite the two Reformations. They agreed on fourteen of fifteen articles. They could not agree on the Supper. Luther took chalk, wrote on the table "Hoc est corpus meum" — "This is my body" — covered the words with a cloth, and would not bend on what he believed Christ's words plainly said. Zwingli wept. The two parted. Two years later Zwingli was killed in battle at Kappel defending Zurich against Catholic cantons. He was forty-seven. Heinrich Bullinger, his able young successor, carried Zurich for another forty-four years and made it one of the most important Reformed cities in Europe. The Marburg failure produced two distinct traditions — Lutheran and Reformed — that have remained separate ever since. The Reformed branch is the one we will follow into Calvin's Geneva.

Yohana Calvin (1509–1564) alikuwa mdogo kwa Luther kwa miaka ishirini na sita, Mfaransa badala ya Mjerumani, msomi wa elimu ya kibinadamu (humanist) aliyefunzwa sheria badala ya maisha ya utawa. Pale ambapo Luther alisukumwa kwenye injili na hofu yake binafsi, Calvin aliifikia kwa kile alichokiita "kuongoka ghafla kuwa mtu aliye tayari kufundishwa" takriban mwaka 1533. Pale ambapo Luther hakuwa na mpango wa kile ambacho kingefuata baada ya kujitenga na Roma, Calvin alitoa teolojia ya kimfumo yenye ushawishi mkubwa zaidi katika Matengenezo ya Kanisa: Mafundisho ya Dini ya Kikristo (Institutes of the Christian Religion), iliyochapishwa kwanza mwaka 1536 alipokuwa na umri wa miaka ishirini na sita na kurekebishwa katika maisha yake yote yaliyobaki hadi toleo la mwisho la mwaka 1559.John Calvin (1509–1564) was twenty-six years younger than Luther, French rather than German, a humanist scholar trained in law rather than monasticism. Where Luther had been driven to the gospel by personal terror, Calvin came to it by what he called "a sudden conversion to teachableness" around 1533. Where Luther had no plan for what came next after he broke with Rome, Calvin produced the most influential systematic theology of the Reformation: the Institutes of the Christian Religion, first published in 1536 when he was twenty-six and revised across the rest of his life until the final 1559 edition.

Calvin alikuwa amekusudia kuishi maisha ya utulivu ya msomi. Mnamo Julai 1536, akisafiri kupitia Geneva, alisimama kulala usiku mmoja. Mwanamatengenezo mwenye bidii ya moto, Guillaume Farel, aliyekuwa ameiongoza Geneva karibuni kujitenga na Roma, alikuja nyumba ya wageni alimofikia na kumtaka Calvin abaki. Calvin alikataa. Farel alitamka laana ya Mungu juu yake ikiwa angekataa, kwa ajili ya masomo yake mwenyewe, kile ambacho Mungu alikuwa akimwita kufanya. Calvin, akiwa ameogopa sana, alikubali kubaki. Angetumika huko Geneva kwa karibu miaka thelathini.Calvin had intended a quiet scholar's life. In July 1536, traveling through Geneva, he stopped overnight. The fiery Reformer Guillaume Farel, who had recently led Geneva to break with Rome, came to his inn and demanded that Calvin stay. Calvin refused. Farel pronounced God's curse on him if he refused for the sake of his own studies what God was calling him to do. Calvin, terrified, agreed to stay. He would labor in Geneva for nearly thirty years.

Mafundisho (Institutes) ni maelezo ya kimfumo yenye vitabu vinne: Mungu Muumbaji (Kitabu cha I), Mungu Mkombozi ndani ya Kristo (Kitabu cha II), namna tunavyoipokea neema ya Kristo (Kitabu cha III), na njia za nje ambazo kwazo Mungu hutuita ndani ya Kristo — kanisa, sakramenti, serikali ya kiraia (Kitabu cha IV). Muundo wa Calvin unarejesha teolojia ya neema ya Augustino katika umbo endelevu, lenye mpangilio, na lililojaa Biblia. Zile pointi tano ambazo wakati mwingine hufupishwa kama TULIP hazikuwa muhtasari wa Calvin — ziliandaliwa na warithi wake wa kitheolojia mwaka 1618–1619 katika Sinodi ya Dort. Lakini mbegu yake imo ndani ya Calvin, na kupitia Calvin ndani ya Augustino, na kupitia Augustino ndani ya Paulo. Sentensi ya Calvin iliyo wazi zaidi kuhusu injili (Mafundisho III.1.1): "Maadamu Kristo anabaki nje yetu, nasi tumetengwa naye, yote aliyoteseka na kuyatenda kwa ajili ya wokovu wa wanadamu yanabaki bure na bila thamani kwetu."The Institutes are a four-book systematic exposition: God the Creator (Book I), God the Redeemer in Christ (Book II), the way we receive the grace of Christ (Book III), and the external means by which God calls us into Christ — church, sacraments, civil government (Book IV). Calvin's framework recovers Augustine's grace theology in a sustained, ordered, biblically saturated form. The five points sometimes summarized as TULIP were not Calvin's outline — they were drawn up by his theological heirs in 1618–1619 at the Synod of Dort. But the seed is in Calvin, and through Calvin in Augustine, and through Augustine in Paul. Calvin's clearest sentence on the gospel (Institutes III.1.1): "As long as Christ remains outside of us, and we are separated from him, all that he has suffered and done for the salvation of the human race remains useless and of no value for us."

Geneva ya Calvin ikawa mji wa kielelezo wa Matengenezo ya Kanisa. Calvin alihubiri siku sita kwa wiki, akipitia vitabu vizima vya Biblia mstari kwa mstari kwa namna ya Krisostomo — akihuisha mapokeo ya mahubiri ya ufafanuzi yaliyokuwa na umri wa miaka elfu moja. Alianzisha chuo mwaka 1559 kilichokuja kuwa uwanja wa mafunzo kwa wachungaji wa Kireformed kote Ulaya. Wakimbizi waliokimbia mateso ya Kikatoliki kutoka Ufaransa, Uingereza, Uskoti, Uholanzi, na Italia walimiminika Geneva na kufunzwa huko kabla ya kurudishwa nyumbani kama wamisionari wa Kireformed. John Knox aliiita Geneva "shule kamilifu zaidi ya Kristo iliyowahi kuwepo duniani tangu siku za mitume." Geneva ya Calvin ilikuwa na makosa halisi: kunyongwa kwa Michael Servetus, aliyepinga fundisho la Utatu, mwaka 1553, aliyeteketezwa kwa moto na baraza la Geneva kwa idhini ya Calvin, ni doa la kudumu. Geneva ileile iliyoifundisha Ulaya neema pia ilibeba dhana ya tangu Konstantino (ambayo Waanabaptisti walikuwa wakifa ili kuipinga) kwamba ni haki kwa hakimu wa serikali kulazimisha usahihi wa kidini. Teolojia ya neema ya Calvin na mafundisho ya Waanabaptisti kuhusu kanisa yote mawili yalikuwa sahihi, na Mwinjilisti wa kisasa wa kanisa huru (lisilofungamana na serikali) anarithi yote mawili.Calvin's Geneva became the model Reformation city. Calvin preached six days a week, working through whole books of the Bible verse by verse in the manner of Chrysostom — reviving the thousand-year-old expository tradition. He founded an academy in 1559 that became the training ground for Reformed pastors across Europe. Refugees from Catholic persecution in France, England, Scotland, the Netherlands, and Italy poured into Geneva and were trained there before being sent home as Reformed missionaries. John Knox called Geneva "the most perfect school of Christ that ever was on the earth since the days of the apostles." Calvin's Geneva had real failures: the 1553 execution of the anti-Trinitarian Michael Servetus, burned by the Geneva council with Calvin's approval, is a permanent stain. The same Geneva that taught grace to Europe also embodied the Constantinian assumption (which the Anabaptists were dying to resist) that the magistrate properly enforces religious orthodoxy. Calvin's grace theology and the Anabaptists' ecclesiology were both right, and the modern free-church evangelical inherits both.

Matengenezo ya Kanisa huko Uingereza yalianza kisiasa wakati Henry VIII, baada ya kushindwa kupata kutoka kwa papa ubatilisho wa ndoa yake na Katarina wa Aragon, alipojitenga na Roma mwaka 1534 na kujitangaza kuwa Kichwa Kikuu cha Kanisa la Uingereza. Nia za Henry zilikuwa za kiukoo, si za kitheolojia; alikufa akiwa Mkatoliki katika kila jambo isipokuwa utii kwa papa. Lakini mlango alioufungua haukuweza kufungwa.The English Reformation began politically when Henry VIII, having failed to obtain a papal annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, broke with Rome in 1534 and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. Henry's motives were dynastic, not theological; he died a Catholic in everything but loyalty to the pope. But the door he opened could not be closed.

William Tyndale (takriban 1494–1536) ni baba wa Biblia ya Kiingereza. Akiwa mtaalamu hodari wa lugha aliyeamini kwamba kijana Mwingereza anayelima shamba anapaswa kuyajua Maandiko kuliko makasisi wasomi, alikimbilia Bara la Ulaya alipokatazwa kutafsiri huko Uingereza, akafanya kazi chini ya ulinzi wa wafanyabiashara rafiki, na akatoa Agano Jipya la kwanza la Kiingereza lililochapishwa, kutoka Kigiriki cha Erasmus, mwaka 1526. Nakala ziliingizwa Uingereza kwa magendo ndani ya mapipa ya nafaka. Thomas More na maaskofu wa Uingereza walizisaka na kuzichoma kwa maelfu. Tyndale aliendelea kutafsiri; kufikia mwaka 1535 alikuwa ametafsiri sehemu kubwa ya Agano la Kale kutoka Kiebrania. Akisalitiwa huko Antwerp na mpelelezi aliyelipwa, na kufungwa gerezani katika ngome ya Vilvoorde karibu na Brussels, alinyongwa kwa kukabwa koo akiwa amefungwa kwenye nguzo tarehe 6 Oktoba 1536, na mwili wake ukateketezwa kwa moto. Maneno yake ya mwisho yaliyorekodiwa yalikuwa sala: "Bwana, yafungue macho ya mfalme wa Uingereza." Miaka mitatu baadaye, kwa amri ya kifalme, Biblia ya Kiingereza (kwa sehemu kubwa ikiwa tafsiri ya Tyndale) iliwekwa katika kila kanisa la parokia huko Uingereza. Takriban asilimia themanini ya lugha ya Toleo la King James la mwaka 1611 ni kazi ya Tyndale.William Tyndale (c. 1494–1536) is the father of the English Bible. A brilliant linguist who believed an English plowboy ought to know more of Scripture than the educated clergy did, he fled to the Continent when forbidden to translate in England, worked under the protection of friendly merchants, and produced the first printed English New Testament from Erasmus's Greek in 1526. Copies were smuggled into England in barrels of grain. Thomas More and the English bishops hunted them down and burned them by the thousands. Tyndale kept translating; by 1535 he had translated most of the Old Testament from Hebrew. Betrayed in Antwerp by a paid informer, imprisoned in the castle of Vilvoorde near Brussels, he was strangled at the stake on October 6, 1536, and his body burned. His last recorded words were a prayer: "Lord, open the king of England's eyes." Three years later, by royal decree, an English Bible (largely Tyndale's translation) was placed in every parish church in England. About eighty percent of the language of the King James Version of 1611 is Tyndale's work.

Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556), askofu mkuu wa Canterbury chini ya Henry na Edward VI, aliandika Kitabu cha Sala kwa Watu Wote (Book of Common Prayer, 1549, kilichorekebishwa 1552), ambacho kiliupa ulimwengu unaozungumza Kiingereza liturujia ya uzuri wa kustaajabisha — "tumekosea na kupotea kutoka katika njia zako kama kondoo waliopotea," "amani ya Mungu ipitayo akili zote," "katikati ya uhai tumo katika mauti." Chini ya Edward VI aliliongoza kanisa la Uingereza kwenye Uprotestanti wa Kireformed wa wastani. Mary Tudor alipotawala mwaka 1553, Cranmer alikamatwa, na baada ya miaka miwili gerezani alitia sahihi hati kadhaa za kuyakana mafundisho yake ya Kiprotestanti. Siku ya kunyongwa kwake, tarehe 21 Machi 1556, utawala ulitarajia ayakane hadharani. Badala yake Cranmer alizikana hati za kukana alizokuwa amezitia sahihi, akatangaza kwamba alikuwa ameisaliti imani yake kwa sababu ya hofu, na akatangaza kwamba mkono wake wa kulia — uliokuwa umetia sahihi hati hizo — ungeungua kwanza. Moto ulipopanda aliunyoosha mkono huo ndani ya moto hadi ukateketea. Mtu aliyekuwa amesitasita alimaliza akiwa amesimama imara.Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556), archbishop of Canterbury under Henry and Edward VI, wrote the Book of Common Prayer (1549, revised 1552), which gave the English-speaking world a liturgy of breathtaking beauty — "we have erred and strayed from thy ways like lost sheep," "the peace of God which passeth all understanding," "in the midst of life we are in death." Under Edward VI he guided the English church into a moderate Reformed Protestantism. When Mary Tudor took the throne in 1553, Cranmer was arrested, and after two years of imprisonment signed several recantations of his Protestant teaching. On the day of his execution, March 21, 1556, the regime expected him to recant publicly. Instead Cranmer renounced the recantations he had signed, declared he had betrayed his faith out of fear, and announced that his right hand — which had signed the recantations — would burn first. As the flames rose he held that hand into the fire until it was consumed. The man who had wavered finished standing firm.

Mary Tudor — "Mary Mwenye Kiu ya Damu" (Bloody Mary) — aliwateketeza kwa moto Waprotestanti wapatao mia tatu katika miaka mitano. Waathiriwa mashuhuri zaidi walikuwa Hugh Latimer na Nicholas Ridley, walioteketezwa pamoja huko Oxford tarehe 16 Oktoba 1555. Maneno ya mwisho ya Latimer kwa Ridley yamekuwa mojawapo ya kauli kuu za mashahidi: "Jipe moyo, Bwana Ridley, na uwe mwanamume! Leo, kwa neema ya Mungu, tutawasha mshumaa wa namna hiyo huko Uingereza, ambao natumaini hautazimwa kamwe." Mshumaa huo uliwaka. Mary alipokufa mwaka 1558 na dada yake Mprotestanti Elizabeth I alipotawala, Matengenezo ya Kanisa huko Uingereza yalikuwa ya kudumu na Waprotestanti waliouawa walikuwa mashujaa wa taifa.Mary Tudor — "Bloody Mary" — burned about three hundred Protestants in five years. The most famous victims were Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley, burned together at Oxford on October 16, 1555. Latimer's last words to Ridley have become one of the great martyr lines: "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man! We shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." The candle burned. When Mary died in 1558 and her Protestant sister Elizabeth I took the throne, the English Reformation was permanent and the executed Protestants were national heroes.

Wakati huohuo huko Uskoti, mhubiri mwenye moto kama volkano John Knox (takriban 1514–1572), aliyefunzwa katika Geneva ya Calvin, alirudi nyumbani na kuyaongoza Matengenezo ya Kanisa huko Uskoti ndani ya muongo mmoja tu. Kufikia mwaka 1560 Bunge la Uskoti lilikuwa limeifuta Misa, likatangaza kwamba papa hana mamlaka yoyote huko Uskoti, na likapitisha Ukiri wa Imani wa Kireformed. Knox alihubiri kana kwamba kila hubiri lingeweza kuwa la mwisho wake, na anajulikana kwa sala yake, "Nipe Uskoti, la sivyo nife." Uskoti ulitolewa. Familia ya makanisa ya Kipresbiteri na ya Kireformed imetokana na kazi yake.Meanwhile in Scotland, the volcanic preacher John Knox (c. 1514–1572), trained in Calvin's Geneva, returned home and led the Scottish Reformation in a single decade. By 1560 the Scottish Parliament had abolished the Mass, declared the pope to have no jurisdiction in Scotland, and adopted a Reformed Confession of Faith. Knox preached as if every sermon might be his last and famously prayed, "Give me Scotland or I die." Scotland was given. The Presbyterian and Reformed family of churches descends from his work.

Roma haikuiachia nusu ya Ulaya kwa Wanamatengenezo bila kujibu. Jibu la Kikatoliki, linaloitwa Matengenezo ya Kikatoliki ya Kujibu (Counter-Reformation), lilikuwa la kurekebisha (likisafisha maovu halisi) na pia la kujihami (likiimarisha mipaka ya mafundisho). Nguvu tatu ziliyaendesha: Wajesuiti, Baraza la Uchunguzi la Roma (Inquisition), na Mtaguso wa Trento.Rome did not concede half of Europe to the Reformers without responding. The Catholic response, called the Counter-Reformation, was both reformist (cleaning up genuine corruption) and reactionary (hardening doctrinal lines). Three engines drove it: the Jesuits, the Roman Inquisition, and the Council of Trent.

Shirika la Yesu lilianzishwa mwaka 1540 na askari Mhispania aliyegeuka kuwa mtu wa maisha ya ndani ya kiroho (mistiki), Ignasio wa Loyola (1491–1556). Wajesuiti waliunganisha mafunzo makali, nidhamu ya kijeshi, utii kamili kwa papa, na maono ya utume duniani kote. Ndani ya kizazi kimoja wamisionari wa Kijesuiti walikuwa wamefika Brazili, Meksiko, Ufilipino, India, China, na Japani. Fransisko Xavier (1506–1552) aliwabatiza labda waongofu elfu thelathini kusini mwa India na Japani kabla ya kufariki karibu na pwani ya China akiwa na umri wa miaka arobaini na sita. Wajesuiti wakawa waelimishaji wa hali ya juu wa Ulaya ya Kikatoliki na wahudumu wa mstari wa mbele popote Ukatoliki ulipopata tena maeneo kutoka kwa Uprotestanti.The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540 by the Spanish soldier-turned-mystic Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556). The Jesuits combined rigorous training, military discipline, total obedience to the pope, and a global missionary vision. Within a generation Jesuit missionaries had reached Brazil, Mexico, the Philippines, India, China, and Japan. Francis Xavier (1506–1552) baptized perhaps thirty thousand converts in southern India and Japan before dying off the coast of China at forty-six. The Jesuits became the elite educators of Catholic Europe and the front-line agents wherever Catholicism recovered ground from Protestantism.

Mtaguso wa Trento (1545–1563), uliokutana kwa kipindi cha miaka kumi na minane katika vikao vitatu, ulieleza rasmi jibu la Kanisa Katoliki la Roma kwa Matengenezo ya Kanisa. Upande wa kurekebisha: uliwataka maaskofu waishi katika majimbo yao, ulikataza kuuzwa kwa vyeo vya kanisa, uliamuru kuanzishwa kwa seminari za kuwafunza makasisi, na uliimarisha nidhamu kuhusu indulgensia. Upande wa kujihami: ulithibitisha mamlaka sawa ya Maandiko na Mapokeo, ulithibitisha tena fundisho la mageuzo ya dutu (transubstantiation), ulitangaza vitabu vya Apokrifa kuwa Maandiko ya kanuni, ulilaani kuhesabiwa haki kwa imani peke yake, na ulishikilia sakramenti zote saba za zama za kati. Kanuni za Trento zilitolewa pamoja na laana rasmi (anathema): "Mtu yeyote akisema kwamba kuhesabiwa haki ni kwa imani peke yake… na awe anathema."The Council of Trent (1545–1563), summoned over eighteen years in three sessions, defined the Roman Catholic response to the Reformation. Reformist: it required bishops to reside in their dioceses, forbade the sale of church offices, mandated the founding of seminaries to train clergy, tightened discipline on indulgences. Reactionary: it affirmed the equal authority of Scripture and tradition, reaffirmed transubstantiation, declared the Apocrypha canonical Scripture, condemned justification by faith alone, and upheld all seven medieval sacraments. Trent canons were issued with anathemas: "If anyone says that justification is by faith alone… let him be anathema."

Kufikia mwaka 1600 ramani ya kidini ya Ulaya ilikuwa imetulia. Kaskazini mwa Ujerumani, Skandinavia, Uingereza, Uskoti, Uholanzi, sehemu kubwa ya Uswisi na Ufaransa — Kiprotestanti. Hispania, Ureno, Italia, kusini mwa Ujerumani, Austria, Polandi, Ayalandi — Kikatoliki. Mabaki ya Waanabaptisti yalinusurika katika maeneo madogo ya Nchi za Chini, Uswisi, na Moravia. Vita na mateso kuhusu mipaka hiyo vingeendelea kwa karne nyingine moja (Vita vya Miaka Thelathini, 1618–1648, peke yake viliua labda watu milioni nane), lakini migawanyiko ya kimafundisho ya mwaka 1600 kwa kiasi kikubwa ndiyo migawanyiko ya kimafundisho ya Ukristo wa Ulaya leo.By 1600 the religious map of Europe was settled. Northern Germany, Scandinavia, England, Scotland, the Netherlands, much of Switzerland and France — Protestant. Spain, Portugal, Italy, southern Germany, Austria, Poland, Ireland — Catholic. The Anabaptist remnant survived in pockets in the Low Countries, Switzerland, and Moravia. The wars and persecutions over those lines would continue for another century (the Thirty Years' War 1618–1648 alone killed perhaps eight million people), but the doctrinal divisions of 1600 are largely the doctrinal divisions of European Christianity today.

Kwanza, injili ni neema peke yake, kwa imani peke yake, ndani ya Kristo peke yake, kwa mamlaka ya Maandiko peke yake, kwa utukufu wa Mungu peke yake. Zile solas tano za Kilatini — sola gratia, sola fide, solus Christus, sola Scriptura, soli Deo gloria — si kauli mbiu za Matengenezo ya Kanisa tu. Ni injili yenyewe kwa muhtasari.First, the gospel is grace alone, by faith alone, in Christ alone, on the authority of Scripture alone, to the glory of God alone. The five Latin solas — sola gratia, sola fide, solus Christus, sola Scriptura, soli Deo gloria — are not Reformation slogans. They are the gospel summarized.

Pili, Biblia katika lugha ya watu ni jambo lisilojadilika. Tyndale alikufa kwa ajili yake. Luther alitafsiri kwa miezi kumi ndani ya ngome kwa ajili yake. Calvin alihubiri siku sita kwa wiki ili kuhakikisha watu wake wanaisikia.Second, the Bible in the people's language is non-negotiable. Tyndale died for it. Luther translated for ten months in a castle for it. Calvin preached six days a week to make sure his people heard it.

Tatu, mahubiri ya ufafanuzi kupitia vitabu vizima ndiyo mtindo uliorejeshwa wa kila kipindi kikuu cha mimbari. Krisostomo katika karne ya nne. Calvin katika karne ya kumi na sita. Spurgeon katika karne ya kumi na tisa (tutakayekutana naye katika Sehemu ya 9). Chukua kitabu kimoja. Chukua miezi sita. Watembeze watu wako ndani yake.Third, expository preaching through whole books is the recovered pattern of every great pulpit age. Chrysostom in the fourth century. Calvin in the sixteenth. Spurgeon in the nineteenth (whom we will meet in Unit 9). Take a book. Take six months. Walk your people through it.

Nne, mabaki yanayoteseka ni mwenzi wa kudumu wa injili. Tyndale alinyongwa. Cranmer akiuchoma mkono wake wa kulia kwanza. Felix Manz alizamishwa majini. Hubmaier na mke wake waliuawa siku tatu mbali. Mimbari ya Matengenezo ya Kanisa ililipiwa kwa moto na Wanamatengenezo na Waanabaptisti vilevile, na Mwinjilisti wa kisasa anarithi wote wawili.Fourth, the suffering remnant is the gospel's permanent companion. Tyndale strangled. Cranmer burning his right hand first. Felix Manz drowned. Hubmaier and his wife killed three days apart. The Reformation pulpit was paid for in fire by Reformers and Anabaptists alike, and the modern evangelical inherits both.

Tano, Wakristo wanapotofautiana, mazungumzo lazima yatokane na Maandiko. Luther na Zwingli hawakuweza kukubaliana huko Marburg, na ulimwengu wa Kiprotestanti umegawanyika kati ya Walutheri na Wareformed tangu wakati huo. Walijadiliana kutoka katika Maandiko na wakamalizia kwa kutokubaliana kwa uaminifu. Hilo ni bora kuliko makubaliano yaliyojengwa juu ya kitu kingine zaidi ya Neno.Fifth, when Christians disagree, the conversation must be from Scripture. Luther and Zwingli could not agree at Marburg, and the Protestant world has been split between Lutheran and Reformed ever since. They argued from Scripture and ended in honest disagreement. That is better than agreement built on something other than the Word.

Karne ya kumi na sita ilifunguliwa kwa mlango — mlango wa Kanisa la Ngome huko Wittenberg, ukiwa na hoja tisini na tano za Kilatini zilizopigiliwa juu yake katika alasiri moja ya baridi ya Oktoba mwaka 1517. Ilifungwa miaka themanini na mitatu baadaye ikiwa na Ulaya iliyobadilika kwa kudumu. Nusu ya bara ikisoma Maandiko katika lugha yake yenyewe. Mimbari ikirejeshwa katikati ya ibada ya Kikristo. Kuhesabiwa haki kwa imani peke yake kukitangazwa kutoka katika mimbari elfu moja zilizotengenezwa upya. Kazi ya watangulizi ikiwa imetimizwa. Sala ya Tyndale ikiwa imejibiwa. Yule bata maji mweupe (swan) ambaye Hus alimtabiri akiwa amekuja na kupita.The sixteenth century opened with a door — the door of the Castle Church at Wittenberg, with ninety-five Latin theses nailed to it on a cold October afternoon in 1517. It closed eighty-three years later with a Europe permanently changed. Half the continent reading Scripture in its own language. The pulpit restored to the center of Christian worship. Justification by faith alone proclaimed from a thousand reformed pulpits. The forerunners' work fulfilled. Tyndale's prayer answered. The swan Hus had foretold come and gone.

Ukifaulu mtihani huu, tutakutana na kile kilichokuja baada ya Matengenezo ya Kanisa katika Sehemu ya 8: Wapuritani, akina Wesley, Maamsho Makuu, na Wapietisti wa Kijerumani wenye uvumilivu waliomfundisha Wesley jinsi ya kuuhisi moyo wake ukipata joto kwa namna ya ajabu.Pass this examination, and we will meet what came after the Reformation in Unit 8: the Puritans, the Wesleys, the Great Awakenings, and the patient German Pietists who taught Wesley how to feel his heart strangely warmed.