Presbyterian Polity, Worship, and Sacraments — Unit 3: Session, Presbytery, Synod, and General Assembly

Key Verse

"For it seemed good to the Holy Spirit, and to us, to lay on you no greater burden than these necessary things." (Acts 15:28, NKJV)

Learning Objectives

When you finish this unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain the Presbyterian principle that the churches of Christ are one church, joined together under one government and not separate islands.

2. Describe the work of the session, the presbytery, the synod and the General Assembly, and say who sits in each.

3. Show from Acts 15 the Bible's pattern of elders from several churches meeting to settle a question for all.

4. Explain why the courts of the church have a ministerial authority, as taught in chapter 31 of the Westminster Confession, and why they may err.

5. State the Congregational, hierarchical and practical objections to this system, and give the Reformed answer to each.

The Voice of This Course

This course is written from inside the Reformed and Presbyterian tradition, for students who belong to it. It is conservative and confessional. Many faithful Christians, especially in Baptist and independent churches, believe that every congregation should govern itself. We state their view fairly and then give our answer. In Unit 1 we saw that Christ is the only head of the church. In Unit 2 we saw that He governs through a plurality of elders. In this unit we ask how elders of different churches work together.

One Church, Many Congregations

The Bible speaks of "the church" in two ways. Sometimes it means all the people of God in heaven and on earth, as when Paul says that Christ loved the church and gave Himself for her (Ephesians 5:25). Sometimes it means a local assembly, as when Paul writes to the church of God at Corinth. The New Testament does not treat these local churches as strangers to each other. Paul planted many churches, yet he spoke of "the churches of God" as sharing the same customs (1 Corinthians 11:16) and gave the same orders in all of them (1 Corinthians 7:17).

Presbyterians have said it this way: the church is one, and it exists in many places. A congregation in Chapala and a congregation in Mexico City, if they confess the same Lord and the same faith, are parts of the same body. It is therefore fitting that their elders should share a common government, to help one another, to settle disputes, to guard the faith and to carry out missions together. This principle is sometimes called connectionalism.

The Four Courts

In Presbyterian churches, the elders do not govern alone but meet in assemblies called courts (or "judicatories"). Each is a body of elders, and each has its own work. The pattern below is common, though bodies differ in detail.

The session. This is the court of the local church. It is made up of the teaching and ruling elders of one congregation. The session receives new members, oversees the worship and teaching, exercises discipline (Unit 5), guards the doctrine and cares for the flock. The deacons work under its oversight (Unit 4).

The presbytery. This is the court of a region. It is made up of the ministers in that region and one or more ruling elders from each congregation. The presbytery examines and ordains ministers, receives them from other bodies, installs them in a church and releases them from it. It reviews the records of the sessions, hears complaints and appeals from them, helps weak churches and plants new ones.

The synod. In some Presbyterian bodies, there is a larger court over several presbyteries, called a synod. It reviews the work of presbyteries and hears appeals. The Dutch Reformed tradition uses the word "synod" widely for its larger assemblies.

The General Assembly. This is the highest court. It meets, usually once a year, with ministers and ruling elders sent by the presbyteries. It deals with the common work of the denomination, such as missions and seminaries, and it is the final court of appeal. It may speak to the churches on doctrine and practice, though what it says must agree with the Bible.

Not all bodies have all four. Some, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, use the session, the presbytery and the General Assembly, and have no regular synod between them. Others, with a longer history in a national setting, keep all four. The number of levels is not the heart of the matter. The heart is that elders of the local churches are joined in assemblies where they govern together.

The Pattern of Acts 15

The main biblical basis for this system is the council at Jerusalem in Acts 15. The story is worth reading carefully.

Men came from Judea to Antioch and taught that Gentile believers must be circumcised in order to be saved. Paul and Barnabas disputed with them, and the church at Antioch decided to send Paul, Barnabas and others "to the apostles and elders" at Jerusalem about the question (Acts 15:1-2). At Jerusalem "the apostles and elders came together to consider this matter" (15:6). After much discussion, Peter spoke of how God had given the Spirit to the Gentiles. Barnabas and Paul told of what God had done among them. James then showed that the words of the prophets agreed (15:13-18), and gave his judgment. The council wrote a letter to the churches saying, "it seemed good to the Holy Spirit, and to us" (15:28). Later, Paul and Timothy delivered "the decrees to keep, which were determined by the apostles and elders who were at Jerusalem" to the churches as they traveled (16:4).

We can draw several lessons from this pattern.

1. A matter that touches many churches was brought beyond one congregation. The dispute began in Antioch, but it was settled in Jerusalem.

2. Representatives were sent. The church at Antioch did not send every member but chose delegates.

3. Elders met together with the apostles. The text repeats "the apostles and elders" (15:2, 4, 6, 22, 23). The elders took a real part in the decision.

4. Scripture was the standard. James reasoned from the prophets.

5. The decision was sent out to the churches, and the churches received it. The decrees were delivered "to keep" (16:4), and the churches rejoiced at the encouragement (15:31).

6. The Holy Spirit was at work in the assembly. The decision was made in dependence on Him.

A second argument comes from the size of the first church. The New Testament speaks of thousands of believers in Jerusalem (Acts 2:41; 4:4; 21:20). They surely met in many homes, yet the Bible speaks of one church in Jerusalem governed by its elders (Acts 11:30; 15:4; 21:18). In the same way, Paul sent for the elders of the church at Ephesus (Acts 20:17), though the city held several house gatherings. Presbyterians conclude that several congregations in one city could be governed by one body of elders.

The Principles of the System

Presbyterian bodies follow certain principles, drawn from these texts and set out in their church orders.

• Elders are chosen by the people. The courts are made of men elected by their congregations.

• Elders are equal in office. The ministers are equals, and the ruling elders share their votes (Unit 2).

• Majority rule. Decisions are taken by vote after prayer and discussion.

• Review and appeal. A lower court's decisions may be reviewed by a higher court, and a person who believes he has been wronged may appeal. This protects members and churches against hasty or unjust treatment.

• The courts are bound by Scripture and the constitution. A court cannot do whatever it likes. It is bound by the Bible and by the confession and church order its members have accepted.

The Limited Authority of the Courts

Chapter 31 of the Westminster Confession of Faith, "Of Synods and Councils," states the nature of this authority. It teaches that synods and councils may meet to settle controversies of faith and cases of conscience, to set rules for the good order of worship and government, and to receive complaints. It adds that their decisions, if they agree with the Word of God, are to be received with reverence and submission, "not only for their agreement with the Word, but also for the power whereby they are made." That power is an ordinance of God appointed in His Word.

Yet the same chapter teaches a warning. All synods and councils since the apostles may err, and many have erred. They are therefore not to be made the rule of faith or practice, but to be used as a help in both. They are also to deal with church matters only, and not with civil affairs, except by humble petition in extraordinary cases or by advice when the civil ruler asks.

This is what Unit 1 meant by ministerial authority. The General Assembly is not a lord, and the session is not a lord. The courts are servants who speak what Christ has said. When they decide in line with Scripture, the churches should submit gladly. When they decide against Scripture, they have no claim on the conscience. This is a humble doctrine, and it protects the church from the claim that a council cannot err.

History in Brief

We have told the history of the Reformed churches in Course 1, and we do not repeat it. Here we simply note that the practice of church assemblies is old. The early church held councils, and the Reformed churches used synods and assemblies from the start. In Scotland, the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland first met in 1560, and the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s set out a form of government for the church. The Reformed churches of the Netherlands held to the same pattern in their national synods, among them the Synod of Dort. These bodies saw themselves as returning to the Bible and not as inventing something new.

Objections and Answers

Objection 1 (Congregational and Baptist): Acts 15 was a unique apostolic event and gives no pattern for courts.

Our friends note that apostles were present, and that Jesus said in Matthew 18:17 to take a matter "to the church." They say the final authority is the local congregation, and that churches may cooperate in associations without being governed by them. Historians and exegetes also debate whether the whole congregation joined in the decision, since Acts 15:22 says "the apostles and elders, with the whole church."

Our answer. We agree that the apostles had a unique authority, but the text shows that the elders took part with them, and it was the elders (and not only the apostles) who received the delegates at Jerusalem (15:4, 6). The decree was sent out to the churches and bound them. Moreover, the presence of the congregation does not remove the role of the elders; Presbyterians also hold that the people choose their elders. Our concern is that, where an association has no real authority, a church with a false teacher or a divided leadership has no help beyond a friendly letter.

Objection 2 (hierarchy): The system makes a chain of command, like the bishops it rejects.

Critics say that courts become bureaucracies in which the church is ruled from above.

Our answer. The danger is real, and history has shown it. But the Presbyterian system has no officer who rules over the others. A moderator presides over a court but has no extra power, and he changes often. The authority belongs to the courts as bodies and not to individual men, and every court is bound by Scripture. Bishops in the Episcopal system hold a distinct rank. Our elders, from the lowest court to the highest, hold the same office.

Objection 3 (practical): Distance, cost and slow decisions make the system hard for small and isolated churches.

In many parts of Latin America and Africa, a presbytery may cover a very large area, and travel is costly.

Our answer. The difficulty is real. Churches should keep the meetings few and focused, and use letters and modern means to share information. But the help that a presbytery gives is also greatest for the small and isolated church, which has no seminary, no examination of its minister and no counsel in a crisis. The system was made to serve the small congregation as much as the large one.

Objection 4 (Roman Catholic): Councils speak with infallible authority.

Rome teaches that general councils, joined with the pope, can define doctrine without error.

Our answer. Our confession says that councils since the apostles have erred, and that only Scripture is the rule of faith. Councils, such as Nicaea in 325, are valued when they state what the Bible teaches, and not because they cannot err.

One honest note: in some large bodies, courts have been captured by teaching that denies the Bible, so connectionalism does not make a church safe by itself. Reformed teachers treat separation as a grave step, taken only when clearly necessary, because they love the unity of the church. Course 1 tells how this has happened.

Pastoral Application

The session of a small church in the interior of Mexico is divided. Two elders believe a member who left the church in anger should be received back without any word of repentance. Two others disagree. The pastor cannot break the tie, and the dispute is spilling into the congregation.

First, the pastor leads the elders to open the Bible and the church's book of order together, so that the question is settled by the constitution and Scripture and not by the strongest personality.

Second, he reminds them that they belong to a presbytery. The church is not alone. He writes to the presbytery, explains the dispute fairly, and asks for counsel.

Third, the session receives the advice of the presbytery with reverence, though it remains responsible for the final decision in the case of its own congregation. If a member is aggrieved, the order provides for appeal.

Fourth, the elders speak to the congregation with one voice, avoid gossip, and pray together for the family concerned.

Summary

The churches of Christ are one church, and Presbyterians govern them as such through connected courts of elders: the session in the local church, the presbytery over a region, the synod in some bodies, and the General Assembly over the whole. The chief biblical pattern is the council of Acts 15, in which apostles and elders met, reasoned from Scripture, sent a decision to the churches and rejoiced in the Spirit's guidance. The courts have a ministerial authority. Their decisions are to be received when they agree with the Word, and they are not infallible. We answer the Congregational, hierarchical, practical and Roman Catholic objections with Scripture and the Westminster Confession. We hold the system as a servant of Christ, who is the head of the church, and not as a master.

Further Reading

• The Westminster Confession of Faith, chapter 31, "Of Synods and Councils."

• The Westminster Assembly, The Form of Presbyterial Church-Government (1645).

• John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion (Beveridge translation, 1845), Book 4 chapters 8 and 9, on the power of the church and on councils.

• The Belgic Confession (1561), Articles 30-32.

• The Scots Confession (1560), chapter 20, on general councils.

• The Second Helvetic Confession (1566), chapter 18.

• Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (1872-73), the section on the church.

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